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I client non dipendono dalla struttura interna dei dati (come lo erano i client dei common block Fortran) Se la struttura interna cambia (es.: r_, theta_, phi_), il codice che usa Vector non deve essere modificato.df *# z U@# Classe Vector*((@Protezione dell accesso ai dati:!ZDSelettori e modificatori$I Selettori (const) non modificano lo stato ( = gli attributi) dell oggetto I modificatori possono modificare lo stato Dz :-* h`Argomenti delle funzioni$>Un argomento pu essere passato come valore o come riferimentoD?%  ?;5Argomenti costanti$YPer evitare di modificare un argomento passato come riferimento, si pu dichiararlo const0ZT *T  Operatori ( dE possibile ridefinire +, -, *, [], ++, ==, . . .3360 Operatori ( Esempio: YCClasse Array a dimensione fissa@ ((((* 71 Operatori ( Esempio: <6Overloading di operatori( ( ( Epossono esistere funzioni con lo stesso nome ma con argomenti diversi,F0 F[EOperatori utilizzabili( =7Argomenti di default(E possibile specificare il default per gli argomenti delle funzioniEDE>8Funzioni e dati statici(CAlcune funzioni e attributi possono essere comuni a tutta la classeDCD3- Ereditariet , Una classe derivata estende la classe base e ne eredita tutti i metodi e gli attributi  Classi astratte,Esempio classico: Shape**qWCerchi e quadratirXCerchiobCerchiotZ Quadrato u[Codice Applicativo (Client)$*v\ Polimorfismo w]Interfaccia astrattaaEreditariet e riuso del codice 4. Ereditariet , fAttenzione: scegliere le relazioni di ereditariet pu essere non banale. Un quadrato un rettangolo?*g \ g5/Ereditariet multipla('Una classe pu ereditare da pi classi (' (+%Superfici e traiettorie(mNel tracking spesso necessario calcolare intersezioni tra curve (tracce) e superfici (elementi di detector)nm * b-'Superfici e traiettorie($Interfaccia delle diverse Trajectory,%  /)Superfici e traiettorie(Implementazione,&Superfici e traiettorie(Interfaccia delle varie Surface*  93Superfici e traiettorie(Surface una classe astratta82Superfici e traiettorie(Interfaccia di Intersection* .(Superfici e traiettorie(<Implementazione dell algoritmo?9Superfici e traiettorie(Intersection usa solo: I metodi position e direction di un oggetto Trajectory I metodi distance e derDist di un oggetto Surface E possibile aggiungere una nuova classe che modellizza una nuova Trajectory o una nuova Surface e Intersection continua a funzionare senza modificare una linea di codice! E possibile rendere anche Intersection astratto...li      B   =   3P   .     X  @:Ritornando al primo esempio ... READKBD e READFL possono essere due implementazioni dello stesso metodo virtuale read di una classe InputDevice WRITEKBD e WRITEFL possono essere implementazioni dello stesso metodo virtuale write di una classe OutputDeviceA< pQ P /z{}~  P3b  ` ̙33` ` ff3333f` 333MMM` f` f` 3>?" dd@ |?" dd@   " @ ` n?" dd@   @@``PR    @ ` ` p>>  (    Zx ԔX s?5  m9Fare clic per modificare lo stile del titolo dello schema: :K  B{  )?  uFare clic per modificare gli stili del testo dello schema Secondo livello Terzo livello Quarto livello Quinto livello: v  0x ``  T*  0؁ `   X*   0 `   V*x  <A ??Pk H  0޽h ? ̙33 *Struttura predefinita0 @ +(     NGYeYe 4  G j* a AAAaa  N 7JYeYe D Z4 G l* a AAAaad  c $ ?*2  JW  N9JYeYe n .,A J uFare clic per modificare gli stili del testo dello schema Secondo livello Terzo livello Quarto livello Quinto livello: v  TBJYeYe   J j* a AAAaa  TxLJYeYe D Z J l* a AAAaaH  0~eI ? ̙33  P(  H ?   ND_Ji_i_ O  J r* 777RRmm   NgJi_i_ C aO J t* 777RRmm  TpJi_i_    J r* 777RRmm  TXlJi_i_ C a  J t* 777RRmmH  0~eI ? ̙33Tf 0|(    S XG0<$D 0 G   S XG@$ <$ 0 G H  0޽h ? ̙33   \ T `  ( o   S |J5<$D 0  J   s *ԂJPv ,$D0 Bint main() { // esempio di programma ... return 0; // fine }vC 2338$ U  s *DJ ` $,$D 0 !int i; long j; float x; double d;." 2!T B  HD>  ,$D 0  s *ȐJ@,$D0 <In C/ C++ non necessario un particolare formato il codice =<=  s *ԕJ ,$D 0 iIl C/ C++ case sensitive .   s *JP $ ,$D0 4Istruzioni separate da  ; :3B  HD> P,$D 0R  s *Jp`D ,$D0 0Commenti con // o /* & */b 3333H  0޽h ? ̙333& <@ %%p&34[%(  4 4 c $J5<$D 0  J  4 <J?,$D0 schar[1]:   4 <J?6,$D0 tint[1].     4 <J?`,$D0 lbool(   4 < 4 || x) { . . . } while( x != 5 ) { . . . } do { . . . } while( x != 5 ) 2p"%& H $ 0޽h ? ̙33   R J  0 ( Trd  0C 0 s *RL ` 0 ,$D0 ! int main() { return 0; }8" 28   0 c $(XLd<$D 0  L  0 c $XL<$ 0 L  0 C BpC DE Fop V@,$D 0  0 68\L ,$D 0 Rdirettiva al preprocessore   0 6@L? `,$D 0 c++ program.cc -o prova*     0 BbL  )?@ Pp) ,$D 0 ]Come compilare:B 0 HDo?p 0 ,$D 0  0 6peLp  ,$D 0 _ end of line  4 0 s *iL ` ,$D0 ~#include <iostream> cout <<  Hello, world ! << endl; j@ 2 3 H 0 0޽h ? ̙33 b bZ (  N  s *4yLPpW,$D0 ( int main() { return 0; }<) 2%8   c $Ld<$D 0  L   c $L<$ 0 L   3 BsC-DEF>s-@ ,$D 0k  s *pLP  ,$D 0 cmath.h definisce sin, cos, ...b  ff8  HL ? 0 3,$D  0 Niente 2**4. Usare pow(2, 4)F T       y  s *@LPpQ,$D0 ) { double r, theta, phi; <* 2&b  s *LPpQ,$D0 P@#include cin >> r >> theta >> phi ; nA 2!~     s *8LPpQ,$D0  #include double x = r * sin( theta ) * sin( phi ); double y = r * sin( theta ) * cos( phi ); double z = r * cos( theta );  2f ff ffB       s *LPpQ,$D 0  cout << x <<  ,  << y <<  ,  << z << endl; F 2  3 3F)H  0޽h ? ̙33P  <@   Px ( -$ P P S Ld<$D 0  L  P s *LH`,$D0 #include <iostream> const float pi = 3.1415396; int main() { int j = 0; if ( j == 0 ) { int k = 5; } j = k; // errore: non compila ! return 0; } void myRoutine( float x ) { int y = x * 2 * pi / 180; cout <<  f(x) =  << y << endl; }Z  2j3uz  /  B P HD>@` <,$D 0 P s *L`,$D 0 j pi globale.  B P HD> ,$D 0 P s *L@ J,$D 0 hj locale.   P S L<$ 0 L H P 0޽h ? ̙33   @ 8  8 (  8 8 c $Ld<$D 0  L  8 c $L5<$ 0 L  8 s *LL ,$D0 ;enum Color { red, green, blue }; Color screenColor = blue; Color windowColor = red; int n = blue; // valido Color c = 1; // erroreX 2h 3 334  ! 8 s *Mp d,$D0 -enum Seme { cuori, picche, quadri, fiori };&. 2-3)  8 C AD:\Users\Luca\Presentazioni e simili\Corso specialistico C++\8clubs.jpg 8 ,$D 0  8 C AD:\Users\Luca\Presentazioni e simili\Corso specialistico C++\8hearts.jpgDH ,$D 0  8 C AD:\Users\Luca\Presentazioni e simili\Corso specialistico C++\aceheart.jpgDX,$D 0 8 C AD:\Users\Luca\Presentazioni e simili\Corso specialistico C++\4dimnd.gifP @ ,$D 0 8 C AD:\Users\Luca\Presentazioni e simili\Corso specialistico C++\7spade.gif@ ,$D  0 8 C AD:\Users\Luca\Presentazioni e simili\Corso specialistico C++\4spade.gif ,$D  0H 8 0޽h ? ̙33   < 4  (    c $ Md<$D 0  M   c $ M5<$ 0 M U  s *Pݸ ,$D0 int main() { int x[10]; for ( int i = 0; i < 10, i++ ) x[i] = 0; double m[5][5]; for ( int i = 0; i < 5; i++ ) for ( int j = 0; j < 5; j++ ) m[i][j] = i * j; return 0; } 2)L#  /  0x M  ,$D 0 L indice va da 0 a n-1. Usare un indice maggiore di n-1 pu causare un crash.O3333*G  c $A *?? 8 *$D 0"  s **ML  ,$D0   int x[] = { 1, 2, 3, 4 }; char t[] = {  C ,  i ,  a ,  o ,  \0 }; char s[] =  Ciao ; int m[2][2] = { {11, 12}, {21, 22} }; 2,3, %  B8M  )? @,$D 0 _Inizializzazione:H  0޽h ? ̙33  !+T0 (  T T s *tFM P,$D0 d12 . 2 #T s *IM P,$D 0 d 24 . 2 $T s *DM X,$D 0 l 0x7b03a928. 2   T S UM5<$D 0  M  T S XRMV@`j<$ 0 M =  `P  T# _0 ,$D 0  T 6YM `P  >Z  T s *  p T <\Mr {[ R Sj  T <_M@  W T12 l 0  T0 ,$D 0UT 0t T# 0  T <eM0t >` T 0` T BdhM|f Uptr ~B T ND>M`2 T 0!Pyq T s *lM ` `2 ,$D0 / int main() { int j = 12; return 0; }<0 2.T  T s *qM ` ` ,$D0  int *ptr = &j; | 2F T s *zM ` ` ,$D0 D4#include cout << *ptr << endl; n5 2 ~   !T s *hM ` ` ,$D 0 * j = 24; cout << *ptr << endl; \+ 2bM "T s *$M ` `b ,$D 0  cout << ptr << endl; * 2T B T@ HD> p ,$D 0 T s *M @,$D 0 >indirizzo di memorial 3 +T3,$D 0` (T 03 *T BM T24 H T 0޽h ? ̙33a <@ X(  X X c $4M5<$D 0  M  X c $MV@`j<$ 0 M  X s *YM \ ,$D0 )q#include int main() { int j = 12; int *ptr = 0; cout << *ptr << endl; // crash ! return 0; }nr 2D 3&   > X s *M   ,$D0 $Segmentation violation (core dumped)0% 2$8`l j X,$D 0T  `P  X#  j X 6lM `P  >Z X s *  p  X <DMr {K T Sj   X <M@ { Y T12 CT 0t  X# j   X 6pM0t >Z  X s *` X <pM^h Uptr Z2 X s *tfB XB 6D> fB X 6D>  fB X 6D>  fB X 6D>@ @ fB X 6D>   X c $A ,?? P@8 ,$D 0H X 0޽h ? ̙33  ,Q, (    c $M5<$D 0  M   c $hMV@``<$ 0 M   s *M ,$D0 fint main() { float x[5]; int j; for (j = 0; j < 5; j++) x[j] = 0; float *ptr = x; *ptr = 1.5; // x[0] = 1.5 *(ptr+1) = 2.5; // x[1] = 2.5 *(ptr+3) = 3.5; // x[3] = 3.5 } 2q333"    j0 =#   ,$D 0@  0 < 0 7 <M 0 @` 8 0P 9 6M 9 Ux"`2 ; 0p` : # BC<DEF><@6j7/l   Q ,$D 0  <\M    @`  0   p  6M    XX[0]"  6,M    W1.5"  <M   @`  0 4 Yp  6M  X XX[1]" " <@M  @` # 0 p $ 6`M  XX[2]" ' < M v @` ( 0 'Lp ) 6$O zM XX[3]" , <<O v @` - 0 p . 6O  XX[4]" F 6 O  - W2.5" G 6 O  W0.0" H 6,O z! W3.5" I 6hO  W0.0" p 6 J#   ,$D 0 K 6O 6 @Z L s *`  M 0,OR  : WX+1"Z2 N s *v  O # BC<DEF><@p p 6 E#  v,$D 0 @ <"O 6 @` A 0`  B 6h%OO  : WX+3"`2 C 0v  D # BC<DEF><@pH  0޽h ? ̙33p <@ (    c $8-O5<$D 0  O   c $.OV@``<$ 0 O   s *M P@ ,$D0 hx#include int main() { int *ptr = new int; *ptr = 12; cout << *ptr << endl; delete ptr; return 0; }y 2.B   z PP   U@P,$D 0N  PP    P   6XAO `P  >Z  s *  p   <EOX P / "   <GO@  C T12 =N 0t   P`    6LO0t >Z   s *`  <OO}Q Uptr xB  HD> Z2  s *@  0TTO P ,$D 0 OAttenzione: Non usare delete fa accumulare locazioni di memoria inutilizzate (memory leak) Utilizzare puntatori prima del new o dopo il delete causa il crash del programma  3 3323 3!3 3 33332      c $A +?? p8 +$D 0H  0޽h ? ̙33  ph0'(    c $`iO5<$D 0  O   c $PlOV@@`<$ 0 O   s *sO P } ,$D0 i#include int main() { int *ptr = new int[3]; ptr[0] = 10; ptr[1] = 11; ptr[2] = 12 delete [] ptr; return 0; }~ 28B      e l  'p 0 ,$D 0T  PP  # @    6O `P  >Z  s *  p   < Oc P I "   <OA  X T10 CT 0t  #    6܌O0t >Z   s *`  <ЏOf Uptr ~B  ND>@ `2  0@T  PP  #    6Z  s *  p   <Oc P I " ! <ȚOA  X T11 T  PP  "#  # 6؟O `P  >Z $ s *  p % <Oc P I " & <dOA  X T12 H  0޽h ? ̙33  <@ @$%(  $ $ S O5<$D 0  O  $ S PO@p<$ 0 O Sz P $  ,$D0 $ s *OP  class Vector { }; 8 $ s *OPa dVector.h B  $@ HD>P ,$D 0B  $ HD> 0@ ,$D  0 $ # B5CDE F>5@p,`,$D 0 $ s *O0,$D  0 5 costruttore   $ s *8O@ ,$D 0 ;funzioni o metodi  $ s *O  ,$D  0 :dati o attributi $ s *O ,$D0 gm public: double x(); double y(); double z(); double r(); double phi(); double theta();  nm     J $ 0O ,$D 0 , private: double x_, y_, z_;  -,F  $ s *@O ,$D 0 2 Vector(double x, double y, double z);  3.~  B $ NDo?` ,$D 0 $ s *O `,$D 0 :Punto e virgola!1z P  $ p H,$D0 $ s *$OP v #include  Vector.h Vector::Vector(double x, double y, double z) : x_(x), y_(y), z_(z) { } double Vector::x() { return x_; } double Vector::r() { return sqrt( x_*x_ + y_*y_ + z_*z_); }* &      $ s *4OP e Vector.cc H $ 0޽h ? ̙33 <@ rjP,`(   , , s *`p,$D0 , S  P5<$D 0  P ?l p P ,p P,$D0`  , 0p G` , 0 2B , 0Oz 1PQ #include  Vector.h Vector::Vector(double x, double y, double z) : x_(x), y_(y), z_(z) {} double Vector::x() { return x_; } double Vector::r() { return sqrt(x_*x_ + y_*y_ + z_*z_); }6     , 0\ Pp F e Vector.cc l `@  ,`@ ,$D0`  , 0` `  , 0  `  , 0 s , 6\E@  class Vector { public: Vector(double x, double y, double z); double x(); double y(); double z(); double r(); double phi(); double theta(); private: double x_, y_, z_; };       , 0P`  dVector.h  , s *pp,$D0 , S `#Pp<$ 0 P H , 0޽h ? ̙33     ` (2 ( t*[@E[ ( ( S (P5<$D 0  P z p `  ( p ,$D0> ( s * Ea `  $ #include <iostream.h> #include  Vector.h int main() { Vector v(1, 1, 0); cout <<  v = ( << v.x() <<  , << v.y() <<  , << v.z() <<  ) << endl; cout <<  r =  << v.r(); cout <<  theta =  << v.theta() << endl; return 0; }6*^     U  ( s * 1Pp `  cmain.cc ( BTAP 5j<$ 0 P ^z  `0  ( 0 ,$D0  ( 0BP Z0 'v = (1, 1, 0) r = 1.4141 theta = 1.5708$('*   ( 0HP `0Z cOutput:*B (@ HD>P@,$D 0 ( s *8NP@ 0,$D 0 Minvoca il constructor  H ( 0޽h ? ̙33T <@ p<|(  < < S (SP5<$D 0  P  < S TP<$ 0 P H < 0޽h ? ̙33   - %  h(  h h c $`P5<$D 0  P { p ` h#  ,$D0 h s *bP` ` N #include <iostream> #include  Vector.h int main() { Vector v(1, 1, 0); cout <<  V = ( << v.x_ <<  , // << v.y_ <<  , // non compila ! << v.z_ <<  ) << endl; // cout <<  r =  << v.r(); cout <<  theta =  << v.theta() << endl; }(%D33 33 33QB      x  h s *}Pp `  cmain.cc h BP 5j<$ 0 P   h c $A 0?? `8 0$D 0H h 0޽h ? ̙33  ;3@(  @ @ c $Pp @<$ 0 P  @ c $P5<$D 0  P l p P`  @p P ,$D0Z @ s *p G`  @ s *XEz 1P #include  Vector.h void Vector::scale(double s) { x_ *= s; y_ *= s; z_ *= s; }6T?    @ s *Pp F e Vector.cc l ``@  @``@ ,$D0`  @ 0`O   @ 6PO@  class Vector { public: Vector(double x, double y, double z); double x() const; double y() const; double z() const; double r() const; double phi() const; double theta() const; void scale(double s); private: double x_, y_, z_; };X=0            @ 0E`` ` dVector.h B @@ ND>  ,$D 0B @ ND> P ,$D 0 @ 6P @ ~ ,$D 0 R modificatore   z   @  ,$D 0 @ s *ĴP  Qa int main() { const Vector v(1, 0, 0); double r = v.r() // OK v.scale( 1.1 ); // errore! }jb;3 3b 0 @ s *P   cmain.cc) @ 6`P7  1 ,$D 0 Selettori (const)0 * H @ 0޽h ? ̙33  <@   B (    c $P5<$D 0  P   c $|PpP<$ 0 P   s *lP> @ ,$D0 Ymdouble dotProduct( Vector& v1, Vector& v2 ) { return v1.x() * v2.x() + v1.y() * v2.y() + v1.z() * v2.z(); }Xn Hp 8  s *$P.@,$D0 #kdouble dotProduct( Vector v1, Vector v2 ) { return v1.x() * v2.x() + v1.y() * v2.y() + v1.z() * v2.z(); }$lkp 8  BpP  )?j,$D 0 JPassare due oggetti della classe Vector come valore (=copia) dispendiosorK!  * $R  B #include  Vector.h int main() { Vector v1(1, 0, 0), v2(0, 1, 0); Vector v; v = v1 + v2; cout <<  v =  << v << endl; cout <<  r =  << v.r(); cout <<  theta =  << v.theta() << endl; }6(^         s *pQp `  cmain.cc\  `0  # `  ,$D0   s *8tQ Z0 'v = (1, 1, 0) r = 1.4141 theta = 1.5708(('*    s *HyQ `0i cOutput:*B  HD> 0 ,$D 0  s *vQ 9,$D 0 ridefinizione di <<6 B @ HD>`  ,$D 0l @ pB  @ pB ,$D 0  0 Q@ ppB  $ v.operator=( operator+(v1, v2) ); $%$F  s *Q@ pz Sintassi alternativa (!#@!?) :2H  0޽h ? ̙33 <@ rj < (  < < c $E5<$D 0  E  P <# ` ,$D0| < s *HEP  class Array { public: Array( int size ); Array(const Array & rh); ~Array(); int size() const; int& operator[]( int i ); private: int* array_; int size_; };nh 3        < s *GP` cArray.hl (  <: ,$D0N < 0 G( Q  #include <assert.h> #include  Array.h Array::Array( int size ) : size_( size ) { array_ = new int[ size ]; } Array::Array(const Array&rh) :size_(rh.size_) { array_ = new int[size]; // copiare il contenuto& . } Array::~Array() { delete [] array_; } int& Array::operator[]( int i ) { assert( i >=0 && i < size_ ); return array_[i]; } int Array::size() const { return size_; }'   3A              +       < 0.G(  dArray.cc   < # BC@DE F>h@@PP,$D 0  < # B5CDE F>5@0,$D 0l   <P `,$D0r < 0p0G  6 int main() { Array a(2); a[0] = 1; a[1] = 2; }j7 F! < 08G   cmain.cc < 3 BC@DE F>h@@0P0 ,$D  0  < s *=Gpp` ,$D 0 Y costruttore   < s *LBG,$D 0 Y distruttore  H < 0޽h ? ̙33  <@ 6 .   (    c $Q5<$D 0  Q   c $QVj<$ 0 Q  p ` # P ,$D0  s *EE_ ` 4. #include <iostream> #include <cmath> #include  Vector.h #include  Matrix.h // matrice 3x3 int main() { Vector v1(1, 1, 0); double phi = M_PI/3; double c = cos(phi), s = sin(phi); Matrix m(1, 0, 0, 0, c, s, 0, -s, c); Vector u = m * v; }hN34z          7   s *XQp `  cmain.ccB  @ HD> ,$D 0B  HD>@,$D 0  s *ģQ@,$D 0 Up grecoH  0޽h ? ̙33   . &   (    S Q5<$D 0  Q   S |QVI<$ 0 Q  P #  ,$D0i  s *QP  class Vector { public: // ... private: double x_, y_, z_; }; Vector operator*(const Vector &, double); double operator*(const Vector&, const Vector&);83      s * QPr s Vector.hh *\ Pn # 0 ,$D0  s *QPn 9 Vector operator*(const Vector&, double s) { return Vector( v.x() * s, v.y() * s, v.z() * s ); } double operator*(const Vector& v1, const Vector& v2) { return ( v1.x() * v2.x() + v1.y() * v2.y() + v1.z() * v2.z() ); }::& L  T   s *QP e Vector.cc H  0޽h ? ̙33. <@ u.m./8D-(  D D c $Q<$D 0  Q  D <Q?6,$D0 S+   D <lE?`,$D0 Y-&   D <lQ?,$D0 S*   D <4Q?&,$D0 Y/&   D <Q?Pv,$D0 Y%&   D <Q? ,$D0 S^    D <$Q?  ,$D0 S&    D <Q?@ f ,$D 0 S|    D < Q? P6,$D 0 T+=    D <LQ?` P,$D 0 T-=    D <S? P,$D 0 b*=    D <S? P&,$D 0 T/=   D <S?P Pv,$D0 T%=   D < S? P ,$D0 T^=   D <S? P ,$D0 T&=   D <,S?@ Pf ,$D0 T|=   D <dS? 6,$D0 U<<=   D <S?` ,$D0 T==   D < S? ,$D0 T!=   D < %S? &,$D0 T<=   D <D)S?P v,$D0 T>=   D <|-S? ,$D0 T&&   D <1S?   ,$D0 T||   D <5S?@  f ,$D0 S,   D <$:S? @,$D0 S+   D <\>S? @&,$D0 S-   D <BS?P @v,$D0 S*   D <FS? @ ,$D0 S&   D <KS?  @ ,$D0 T->    D <   (D < _S? ,$D#0 S<   )D <XcS? P ,$D$0 T>>   *D <gS? P,$D%0 T<<   +D <kS?  ,$D&0 T()   ,D <pS?  ,$D'0 T[]   -D <8tS?0 @V,$D(0 T--   /D <pxS?*P,$D)0 S=   0D <|S?* PP,$D*0 U>>=   1D <S?* P,$D+0 U->*   4D s *dS 0,$D,0 5 2 argomenti  5D s *TS` ,$D-0 5 1 argomento " 7D 0S% ,$D.0 rArray v(3); int n = v[0]; Complex c(2, 2); Complex cConj = *c; Vector v; Point p; Vector u = v + p; cout << v; ss   H D 0޽h ? ̙33  {s#0  (    c $S5<$D 0  S   c $ܗSVI<$ 0 S  P  #  ,$D0&   s *tSP j class Vector { public: Vector(double x = 0, double y = 0, double z = 0); . . . };k)      s *SPr dVector.h  P #  ,$D0T  s *XSP  #include <iostream> #include  Vector.h int main() { Vector v; cout <<  v =  << v << endl; }Rd;     s *hSPr cmain.cc  `0 #  ` ; ,$D0  s *LS [0 h V = (0, 0, 0)(  s *S `0v XOutput l  0 # P ,$D0  0   # l$HV1? Vc,$D 0 n loweCorner$   l n p  np,$D 0   # lwDNV1?n )p @B    fD>? ) 2   Z1? X J  # l0QV1?  ,$D 0 zcenterToUpperCorner_&  H  0޽h ? fffN       (    c $t^V5<$D 0  V z P"  ` ,$D0~  s *`VP" #include  Circle.h #include  Square.h int main() { Circle c1( Point2d(2.,3.), 4.23 ); Square r1( Point2d(2.,1.), Point2d(4.,3.) ); Circle * circles[ 10 ]; for ( int i = 0; i < 10; ++i ) { circles[ i ] = new Circle( Point2d(i,i), 2. ); } for ( int i = 0; i < 10; ++i ) circles[ i ]->draw(); return 0; }JQ'33 OH33Q  s *rVP UMain.cc8   `vVԔ?  ,$D 0 t(Come gestire cerchi e quadrati insieme?)))B  @  `DԔ?P ,$D 0w   `({V1?P ` ,$D 0 kCostruisce un vettore di puntatori a cerchi, crea oggetti in memoria e salva i loro puntatori nel vettore. lllB   `DԔ? @ 0 ,$D 0  # lV1?J 0 ,$D 0 4Itera sul vettore e invoca draw() per ogni elementoB5*H  0޽h ? fff  y(    0A?6,$D0  c $V5<$D 0  V    fV1?` v ,$D 0 Tutte le Shapes hanno la stessa interfaccia: draw, pick, move, fillColor..., ma ogni sottotipo diverso pu avere la usa personale implementazioned   +    3H  0޽h ? fff  wo (  z P   0 ,$D0  s *HVP  D0class Shape { public: Shape() { } virtual ~Shape() { } virtual void moveAt(const Point2d& where) = 0; virtual void changeColor(Color newColor) = 0; virtual void scale(double s) = 0; virtual void rotate(double phi) = 0; virtual void draw() const = 0; virtual void cancel() const = 0; };1    |   |  33   |  33  |  |  33  |  |  33   |  |  33   |  |  33   |  |  33   | 1  s *VP UShape.h  c $V5<$D 0  V B   `DԔ?@`P` ,$D 0E   `dV1?0  ,$D 0 )Interfaccia di metodi puramente virtuali&*)*Hz P    B0 ,$D0   s *VP  #include  Shape.h class Square : public Shape { // & . Il resto tutto uguale a prima };\ 33       % 3 \   s *VP VSquare.h  z P    P,$D0   s *VP $#include  Circle.h #include  Square.h int main() { Shape * shapes[ 20 ]; int index = 0; for ( int i = 0; i < 10; i++ ) { Shape * s; s = new Circle( Point2d(i, i), 2.) ); shapes[ index ++ ] = s; s = new Square( Point2d(i, i), Point2d(i+1, i+2)) ); shapes[ index ++ ] = s; } for ( int i = 0; i < 20; i++ ) shapes[ i ]->draw(); return 0; }(   L    @        s *VP UMain.ccH  0޽h ? fff%  0 e(    c $ W5<$D 0  W z P  y ,$D06  s *WP Class CenteredShape: public Shape { public: CenteredShape(Point2d c, Color color = TRASPARENT) : center_(c), color_(color) { /*draw();*/ } ~Circle() { /*cancel();*/ } void moveAt( const Point2d& ); void moveBy( const Vector2d& ); void changeColor( Color ); virtual void scale( double ) = 0; virtual void rotate( double ) = 0; virtual void draw() const = 0; virtual void cancel() const = 0; protected: Point2d center_; Color color_; };      S  3    3          |     |  |     |  |     |  |     |3   s **WP ]CenteredShape.hz   `D-W1?@,$D 0 bNon si possono chiamare metodi virtuali in costruttori e distruttori (troppo presto, troppo tardi)"cEcB @  `DԔ? Bp,$D 0z P,  p,$D0b   s *H3WP, #include  CenteredShape.hh class Square : public CenteredShape { public: Square( Point2d lowerCorner, Point2d upperCorner, Color col = TRASPARENT) : CenteredShape( median(lowerCorner, upperCorner), col), touc_(upperCorner - center_) { draw(); } ~Square() { cancel(); } virtual void scale( double s ) { cancel(); centerToUpperCorner_ *= s; draw(); } virtual void rotate( double phi ); virtual void draw() const; virtual void cancel() const; private: Vector2d touc_; };       U  Z    |  E  |    |     |  )    s *KWP VSquare.h  H  0޽h ? fffq <@  P (     S l^W5<$D 0  W  Pk # @  ,$D0%  s *8hWPk  class Rectangle { public: Rectangle(double x0, double y0, double lx, double ly) : lx_(lx), ly_(ly), x0_(x0), y0_(y0) { } void scaleX(double s); void scaleY(double s); protected: double x0_, y0_; double lx_, ly_; };  n@         s *qWPX g Rectangle.h  B  HD8cP ,$D 0  c $A 5?? 8 5$D 0  S tW@ <$ 0 W  P<  # p`  ,$D0a  s *uWP<  wclass Square : public Rectangle { public: Square(double x0, double y0, double l) : Rectangle(x0, y0, l, l) { } };x   '         s *lWP dSquare.h h   `ćWGH))?g ^,$D 0 RAvere lx_ e ly_ ridondante per Sqare Cosa succede se si invoca scaleX o scaleY ?SH  0޽h ? ̙33  *"`( l)   S W5<$D 0  W   S ȘW<$ 0 W  P  #  ,$D0  s *WP  J: class DrawableObj { public: virtual void draw() = 0; };;  ||T      s *EPr i DrawableObj.h   P   # @ 0T,$D0p   s *@WP  f class Shape { public: virtual void scale(double s) = 0; virtual void moveAt( Vector2d& ) = 0; };g| |||     s *WPr cShape.hB  HD8c { ,$D 0B  HD8c@ P { ,$D  0  C AlD:\Users\Lista\PowerPoint\Torino 19-2-1998\Bord23.wmfPP> ,$D 0l  4   `  ,$D  0  C AlD:\Users\Lista\PowerPoint\Torino 19-2-1998\Bord23.wmf 4 h  c $A 7?? M S q 7  c $A 8??`2 8 8$D 0 P # Y  ,$D0i  s *`WP  class DrawableShape : public DrawableObj, public Shape { public: virtual void draw(); virtual void scale(double s); virtual void moveAt( Vector2d& ); };`    ||  |      s *WPq kDrawableShape.h H  0޽h ? ̙33d <@ p&( (9h   S W5<$D 0  W   S  P  #   ,$D0  s *|[YP  zn class Trajectory { public: virtual Point position(double s) = 0; virtual Vector direction(double s) = 0; };@o  | ||  |     s *4kYPr h Trajectory.h  H  0޽h ? ̙33   (    c $LsY5<$D 0  Y   c $,tYV<$ 0 Y  PT  #  ,$D0D  s *uYPT  P #include  Trajectory.h // & vuoto ...D)3*    s *|YPr i Trajectory.cc  D Pn  # `` ,$D0   s *tYPn  #include  Helix.h Helix::Helix() { } Point Helix::position(double s) { // implementazione }a 3     s *,YPj dHelix.cc # P` #  > ,$D0  s *YP` dn #include  Line.h Line::Line(const Point& o, constVector& d) : origin_( o ), direction_( d.unit() ) { } Point Line::position(double s) { return ( origin_ + s * direction_ ); }< % $           s *YPr cLine.ccH  0޽h ? ̙33 @; bZ(   P #  ,$D0<  s *ĴYP  #include  Surface.h class Plane : public Surface { public: virtual distance(const Point& p); virtual derDist(const Point& p, const Vector& r); protected: Point origin_; Vector norm_; double dist_; };  || ^           s *HYPr cPlane.h| P  # `p,$D0  s *|YP  { class Surface { public: virtual distance(const Point& p) = 0; virtual derDist(const Point& p, const Vector& r) = 0; };X| ||| |        s *4YPq e Surface.h   c $Y5<$D 0  Y   c $YV<$ 0 Y z P  # @ `,$D0   s *HYP \ #include  Surface.h class Cylinder : public Surface { public: virtual distance(const Point& p); virtual derDist(const Point& p, const Vector& r); };J  ||           s * ZPr f Cylinder.h   s *Z@ +,$D 0 1distanza (con segno) di un punto dalla superficie212B @ HD>`,$D 0H  0޽h ? ̙33 p<@ { ( (@b@   c $ Z5<$D 0  Z   c $ZV<$ 0 Z l P #  ,$D0  s *ZP  #include  Plane.h Plane::distance(const Point& p) { return ( _dist - ( (p - origin_) * direction_) ); } Plane::derDist(const Point& p, const Vector& r) { return - r * _direction; }J1            s *(ZPr dPlane.cc { P  #  ,$D0   s *x.ZP J #include  Cylinder.h Cylinder::distance(const Point& p) { /* . . . */ } Cylinder::derDist(const Point& p, const Vector& r) { /* . . . */ } \ 33         s *8BZPr g Cylinder.cc  PQ  # ` ,$D0,  s *pFZPQ  @ #include  Surface.h // vuoto<! 3*   s *lLZPr f Surface.cc H  0޽h ? ̙33  <@  w   (    c $$TZ5<$D 0  Z   c $UZV<$ 0 Z  P # `@@,$D0z  s *WZP " class Surface; class Trajectory; class Intersection { public: Intersection(Surface* s, Trajectory* t) surface_(s), trajectory_(t) {} Point intersect(double s1, double s2); protected: double sIntersect(double s1, double s2); Surface* surface_; Trajectory* trajectory_; };#      , -  L            s *tZPr jIntersection.h B  @ HDjJ@ j,$D 0  s *xZ ,$D 0 _forward class declarationH  0޽h ? ̙33  JB(    c $Z5<$D 0  Z   c $(vE @<$ 0 Z Q  P  #  ,$D0   s *КZP  #include  Intersection.h #include <cmath> #include  Surface.h #include  Trajectory.h const int maxIterations 20 const double sMax 1.e+6 const double accuracy1.e-3 double Intersection::sIntersect(double s1, double s2) { // algoritmo di Newton-Raphson double s = s1; double maxS = max(s1, s2); double minS = min(s1, s2); double d, delta; for( int j = 0; j < maxIterations; j++ ) { Point p = _trajectory->position( s ); d = surface_->distance( p ); delta = surface_->derDist( p, trajectory_->direction( s ) ); double ds = - d / delta; double test = s + ds; Z N      =  3 3 3 3 3            B          '                s *ZPw kIntersection.cc   0`Z ,$D0 Q // controlla che test tra s1 e s2 if( (s1 - test) * (test - s2) < 0.0 ) { if ( s1 < s2 ) s += abs( d ); else s -= abs( d ); if( s > maxS || s < minS ) return sMax; } else s = test; if( abs(d) < accuracy ) return s; } return sMax; } Point Intersection::intersect(double s1, double s2) { return trajectory_->position(sIntersect(s1, s2)); } # 3        T     v,0!      $  H  0޽h ? ̙33 X x(    S  Z5<$D 0  Z   S ZxZ<$ 0 Z   c $A 6?? O8 6$D 0H  0޽h ? ̙33Z g  ( U     S Z5<$D 0  Z    S Z <$ 0 Z    s *8Z \,$D0 pdvoid copy(InputDevice& in, OutputDevice& out) { char c; while ( in.read(c) ) out.write(c); }$ed    H   0޽h ? ̙33W0 XP`(  ^  S  +3   TJ  # lxWTbebe n .,B  T 4Vediamo ora nel dettaglio come scrivere delle classi che risolvono un problema. Ad esempio il classico problema di visualizzare forme geometriche e di manipolarle con una GUI. Abbiamo bisogno di varie forme geometriche: cerchi, rettangoli, esagoni, che si possano creare, distruggere, disegnare, muovere, ruotare etc. Non pretendiamo qui di presentare un implementazione completa, ma di dare solo un idea di come si possa ottenere un certo tipo di comportamento utilizzando la programmazione ad oggetti. Nel nostro esempio assumiamo l esistenza di una libreria grafica di base non OO e una libreria di classi di geometria con punti, vettori in due dimensioni..F=%#H  0~eI ? ̙33:X0 (  ^  S  +3   T  # lTbebe n .,B  T 8fQui vediamo la struttura essenziale di una classe e molti degli elementi sintattici di base: la dichiarazione di una classe con membri pubblici e privati costruttore, distruttore metodi inline metodi definiti in un altra file attributi di tipo  built-in  e di classe Color sarebbe un enumerator ma non si vede la dichiarazione.. come si istanzia un oggetto e come si invoca un suo metodo un loop  for l uso di operatori vari in un piccolo algoritmo l uso di oggetti temporanei (che il compilatore pu ottimizzare) <  17H  0~eI ? ̙33LZ0  (  ^  S  +3   V  # lYVbebe n .,B  V JRepetita juvant!?!H  0~eI ? ̙33v[0 6.(  ^  S  +3   V(  # lVbebe n .,B  V tJUna semplice applicazione delle classi precedenti. Pi dettagli sulla sintassi gi vitsa in precedenza. Si vede l allocazione sull heap (ma non esplicitamente che new ritorna un puntatore) Viene anche introdotto un vettore STL e la sua sintassi di base (ripresa poi in dettaglio in seguito). &H  0~eI ? ̙33R\0  (  ^  S  +3   V  # lVbebe n .,B  V P&Rullo di tamburi& ..H  0~eI ? ̙33]0 x (  ^  S  +3   Vr  # lWbebe n .,B  V La chiave di volta della programmazione orientata ad oggetti: l'ereditariet di un interfaccia astratta per ottenere una gestione polimorfica degli oggetti. In  puro OO la classe di base deve contenere solo metodi puramente virtuali e nessun attributo. Questo e ovviamente sempre possibile farlo. Solo pigrizia e una tendenza a cercare un ottimizzazione precoce ci fanno implementare classi di base che contengono anche parte dell implementazione comune. H  0~eI ? ̙330   ( s X  C  *2   O  S kO n .,A  O "H  0~eI ? ̙33a0 @*(  ^  S  +3   E  # l|PWbebe n .,B  E JIl punto pi controverso dell OO: l'ereditariet pubblica dell implementazione. In questo caso i puristi richiederebbero: Class CCShape : public virtual Shape {..}; Class Rectangle : private CCShape, public Shape {& }; ma per un corso introduttivo mi sembra veramente troppo!!! Posiamo l attenzione su una delle tante trappole del C++: l invocazione di metodi virtuali nel costruttore e distruttore della classe base. @{*0*{H  0~eI ? ̙33:b0 (  ^  S  +3   T  # lxVbebe n .,B  T 8fQui vediamo la struttura essenziale di una classe e molti degli elementi sintattici di base: la dichiarazione di una classe con membri pubblici e privati costruttore, distruttore metodi inline metodi definiti in un altra file attributi di tipo  built-in  e di classe Color sarebbe un enumerator ma non si vede la dichiarazione.. come si istanzia un oggetto e come si invoca un suo metodo un loop  for l uso di operatori vari in un piccolo algoritmo l uso di oggetti temporanei (che il compilatore pu ottimizzare) <  17H  0~eI ? ̙33rtx\puwIHH9$lt`Ad|+@ %S1: >0)! 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